From time to time, motorists have to deal with new terms. And among them, geometric cross-country ability is a very important indicator for SUVs. This parameter is also available in other cars, but when choosing SUVs, special attention is paid to it. By this concept we usually mean the totality of its characteristics that influence the ability to easily overcome obstacles in certain conditions. The full geometric cross-country ability of an SUV is formed from several groups of parameters. They can be conventionally called basic and off-road. In this article, we will try to cover this issue in detail and determine all its subtleties.
Geometric cross-country ability is just a theory
At the very beginning, we must understand the difference between geometric cross-country ability and the ability of a car to overcome obstacles. Geometry is objective data that describes a car as a model. The data, which has nothing to do with practice, is intended only to inform the user about his vehicle. Information on maximum ground clearance is provided by the same data as on the length of the car, but in practice it does not mean very much. It is not necessary that a longer car will by definition be more spacious than a short car.
This must be understood before giving preference to one or another car. Moreover, the data provided by manufacturers is almost never consistent with reality. This is especially true for ground clearance, which in the eyes of a car enthusiast is usually something sacred in the understanding of off-road capabilities.
Reasons for violation of body geometry
It is generally accepted that the main reason for the violation of the geometry of the vehicle body is its participation in an accident. It is difficult to argue with this, but there are often situations when the same result is caused by improper operation of the machine or by reasons resulting from natural or man-made factors.
So, if you operate a car for a long time in conditions that can hardly be called satisfactory, for example, on dirt roads or asphalt in frankly poor condition, then the control points inevitably shift, resulting in a loss of symmetry. As a result, there is increased wear of suspension parts, which negatively affects the operation of all other components of the car.
Snow and puddles are another scourge of roads: they hide uneven road surfaces. Deep holes are especially dangerous, falling into them at high speed is fraught with a whole bunch of troubles. The use of tires with an asymmetrically worn tread pattern, as well as tires of different models, also threatens the rapid loss of the original geometry of body parts and chassis.
Longitudinal flotation angle (roll angle)
In the classic description, this is the maximum angle at which a car can move onto a horizontal surface without hitting the corner of the obstacle with the bottom or elements located lowest below it.
It is also worth noting that ground clearance, also known as ground clearance, is the distance between the road surface and the lowest point of the central part of the car.
Corrosion diagnostics
Visual detection of car body corrosion
Car corrosion is the destruction of metal parts. Causes may include humid climates, chemicals, and damage to the vehicle body. Particularly dangerous are cracks, scratches, and gaps in which moisture accumulates. Diagnosis of the car body for corrosion should be carried out monthly.
- First of all, you need to carefully check the fenders, sills and underbody of the car, since these are the parts that most often come into contact with water and salt.
- Also inspect the handbrake, engine crankcase and brake line yourself or with the help of a mechanic.
- Check all joints and cavities of the car where moisture and dirt may accumulate.
- There should be no dark spots on the paint, under which the destructive process may have already begun.
At the first manifestation of the corrosion process, it is necessary to take appropriate measures.
Cross angle
photo: Erik Lando/flickr.com
The second important indicator affecting the geometry of the car. The term is little known among wide circles of motorists, but is no less important in its meaning. It indicates the distance from the ground to the lowest point of the car between the wheels (lowest points of suspension elements, drives, fasteners and other units).
Often, manufacturers use either the best setting or a general concept for ground clearance at any point in the vehicle.
Relatively speaking, this parameter indicates the lowest point in the area of the axes. One note: we are not talking about elements on the wheels themselves, such as, for example, mounting shock absorbers.
The transverse ground clearance in a car with suspension on solid drive axles is limited by the presence of a differential housing. In the case of independent suspension (split axle), the clearance is limited by the elements of the chassis itself (levers, silent blocks, and so on).
Most often, cars with independent suspension have higher ground clearance than cars with dependent suspension (solid axle). This applies to the vehicle, both loaded and unloaded (in the first case, the suspension is compressed, in the second, it is decompressed).
When a vehicle with independent suspension goes over a bump, the ground clearance changes. Under a rigid axle, ground clearance is always constant. It is also worth noting that ground clearance does not always correspond to the center of the axle. On some vehicles, the axle differential housing may be positioned slightly to the side (to the left or right).
The Hummer H1 is a prime example of the benefits of independent suspension. In a specialized all-round vehicle for the most difficult conditions, it is still better than the dependent version
In practice, although ground clearance is an important parameter, it is not the only parameter that determines the vehicle’s capabilities in field conditions. There is also no definite rule about what is better on a car - independent or dependent suspension. Because a lot in real life will depend on how the car is used.
For example, dependent suspension and high ground clearance will work better in ruts. On the other hand, when driving dynamically on large bumps, the dependent suspension ensures that the ground clearance will not always be constant and the chance of hitting an obstacle with a suspension element will be lower for such a car. Plus, the driver will be able to maneuver between obstacles with greater precision and chance without hitting them. This is especially true if there are stones and other serious obstacles on the road.
Types of Off-Road Tires
All-Terrain class (any surface)
Road 50%, off-road 50%. The most versatile option. It has a deep sparse tread that works great on dirt and sand, but is not sparse enough to cause loss of controllability and high noise on the roads. Perfect for long trips. It has a disadvantage: the ability to still get clogged on soft soils. Not as strong and fast as with regular tires, but still.
Mud-Terrain class (mud surface)
Road 30%, off-road 70%. An extreme option, perfect for attacking the most difficult areas. It has a very rare tread “tooth”, which allows the rubber not to “wash out”, coping well with any soil or stones, but a significant loss of controllability and high noise are what you should always keep in mind.
Photo: ARB press service
Dmitry Lyakhovenko, independent expert: “Choosing off-road tires is always a very, very difficult task. You can look at the world of off-road treads from a huge number of angles. You need to start by understanding the type of off-road you are going to drive on. There are tires designed for rocky soils - they are distinguished by a smoother and more even surface and high plasticity for flowing around the smallest irregularities. Tires for clay soils are more similar to tractor tires - the characteristic “blades” of the tread are designed for reliable grip on soft soils. Sand tires are usually wider and less toothy than mud tires. Rubber for swampy soils has the ability to work at ultra-low pressures, when a flat tire forms a large contact patch with the ground, preventing the car from falling through. Moreover, those tire options that are recognized by jeepers as relatively universal are, in fact, the worst choice. Specialty tires are when you only drive well where those tires are really good. The universal option is when you drive equally badly everywhere.”
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Ground clearance (clearance)
Ground clearance is the distance between the ground and the lowest point of the vehicle, but between the vehicle's axles (not the wheels). Typically, ground clearance is higher than the cross-country angle. Regardless of the suspension design, ground clearance will vary depending on the load and driving conditions.
Does this parameter mean anything? Certainly. For example, a tree lying across the road will be overcome, not least with the help of this clearance.
How to check body geometry
They mistakenly believe that if the camber and toe of your car’s wheels are in order, then, they say, everything is fine with the geometry. However, no. The body is checked on special stands and slipways. Here, using control points, with the help of special equipment, everything is checked: the dimensions and diagonals of the engine and luggage compartments, door and window openings, windshield, the distance between control points in the side members, load-bearing parts of the bottom, amplifiers, marks on the frame (if the car is framed), on roof pillars and so on.
What kind of special equipment is this? This is a measuring ruler or a stationary stand, a slipway, where using special marks, including electronic beacons, the distances between these same control points are checked. The car is fixed (with chains!) on a special platform, sensors are hung on the body in the right places, and since many points are hidden (they are located under body panel skins, under bumpers, under fender protections and sills), in order to get to them, you need to dismantle all interfering elements. Restoring the geometry of the body, and this happens in the process of body straightening work, is a very complex, troublesome and multi-step. An ordinary leveler will not work here; here you need to have the appropriate education, knowledge of car design, feel the metal, and have considerable straightening experience.
If they tell you that garage craftsmen can do this, that they will repair your damaged car in the garage using a special certified ruler, not in a flash, but they will repair it, do not believe it. They will say that, indeed, this operation takes a lot of time, that it is difficult to stretch the body, but it is possible, even without a proprietary slipway, but only with the help of other means known to them alone, do not believe it. Deviations in geometry occur in cars that are handicraftally repaired by people without special equipment and, as a rule, without the appropriate qualifications. It is recommended to check the geometry of the body and its supporting parts at control points (I repeat once again) at least once a year or at least every 30 thousand km.
Approach and departure angles
The approach angle is the angle between the horizontal surface and the line drawn between the contact patch of the front wheels and the lowest point of the front of the car.
Simply put, the angle of attack determines the vehicle's ability to approach an inclined surface without hitting it with the front bumper or engine guard, that is, the maximum angle of the ramp that a car can enter without hitting it with the front of the body. The parameter is closely related to the front overhang.
A similar parameter is used for the rear of the car.
Departure angle is the same thing, but for the rear: the angle between the horizontal surface and the line drawn between the contact patch of the rear wheels and the bottom point of the rear of the car. It is tested on an inclined ramp when the car is moving in reverse, onto which the car can drive without touching the obstacle with the rear of the body.
Of course, for SUVs the approach and departure angles are much greater than for conventional passenger cars and can be 45°-50°, plus or minus a couple of degrees.
photo: lurkzilla/flickr.com
In reality, the angle of attack of entry and exit largely depends on the shape of the bumper or engine crankcase protection. For example, the farther the bumpers are located from the center point of the body, the greater the likelihood of them catching the slope and damaging them. In a car with a tow bar, this element will be the lowest point. In some SUVs, on the other hand, the angle of attack is determined by the presence of a large muffler, which can also be hit when moving up in reverse. That's why some SUVs have exhaust pointed to the side (Land Rover Defender).
Why do different countries have different railway gauges?
It is partly a myth, and partly true, that different railway gauges in different countries are needed so that in the event of an invasion, enemy troops cannot quickly seize the tracks and transfer their troops inland. Moreover, almost at the dawn of the formation of railways, the horse was inferior to the steam locomotive in moving goods over long distances.
According to one version, the choice in Europe and some other countries of the 1435 mm gauge is due to the fact that this value corresponds to the gauge of a standard cart in the Roman Empire. But this version is not found very often. Much more often they say that when railways were born in Europe, they were already being built in full swing in the USA and the Europeans simply took a look at how it should be done.
In fact, this was rather a pleasant addition and, for example, during the construction of the Nikolaev railway this was not taken into account. Moreover, in Europe at that time there was no single standard at all and different countries made their own versions of the gauge. Later, a single width was established, which is used almost everywhere except Finland, the Baltic states and the CIS countries - 1435 mm. The same width is used in the USA, China, Korea and even Australia.
Examples of railway gauge widths in Europe
Threshold height (term of foreign jeepers)
Threshold height (threshold height) is the height of a vertical obstacle that a vehicle can overcome with only its wheels in contact with it. We did not find such a term in the domestic literature, but in foreign sources it stands out as a separate category.
In general terms, this is the distance from the ground to the lowest point of the car, located in front of the wheels, when looking at the car from the side. In a sense, the sill height is the longitudinal gap between the bumper/crankcase protection elements.
This parameter complements the approach and departure angles. It may be that vehicles with the same angle of attack will have different threshold heights. A unique example is the Hummer H1 without a front bumper, which has no threshold height restrictions and its attack angle is 90 degrees. This is shown in the video below:
In practice, only real jeepers use it. All other car owners will be bothered by the bumpers on their cars and the small forward movement of the front axle wheels. Of course, the Hummer cannot do this trick in reverse.
From crossover to all-terrain vehicle. Exhibitions of men's hobbies | Photo gallery
"Taiga VIP" on the GAZ-3308 chassis. The truck is equipped with a 7-seater luxury cabin, which can also serve as a home on a long-distance expedition. A short wheelbase (3770 mm), all-wheel drive, and an installed winch solve the problem of achieving any goal off-road. AiF / Irina Zverkova
The all-terrain vehicle "Bear" SBKH-5 is a universal vehicle and can transport people and cargo. The body of the all-terrain vehicle consists of two parts - a fiberglass top and a steel boat, so the bottom does not require special protection. The engine and manual transmission were taken from a VAZ-2107 car. The brake system with a vacuum booster and high-quality clutches make driving the all-terrain vehicle easy, and its maximum speed is 50 km/h on land and 5 km/h on water AiF / Irina Zverkova
Universal vehicles based on UAZ bodies were represented by the Uzola all-terrain vehicle. It is made on the basis of the original tracked chassis and can be equipped with a ZMZ-409.10 gasoline engine with a power of 143 hp. or diesel ZMZ-5143.10 with a power of 98 hp. In the basic configuration, the all-terrain vehicle is equipped with a water bilge pump, external protection, a metal roof with a hatch, and rubber tracks with Kevlar cord (lugs) 620 mm. AiF / Irina Zverkova
The Tinger-Compact 500 all-terrain vehicle is manufactured under a patented Canadian license, designed to cross snow and swamps. Its compact dimensions (3000x19000x1300 mm) allow you to transport equipment in trailers and in the back of regular trucks. Chinese-made John Deere engine with 57 hp. makes it possible to reach a speed of 45 km/h on land and 3 km/h on water. AiF / Irina Zverkova
Along with the products of Russian engineers, the latest new cars equipped with all-wheel drive were presented in the hall: Mitsubishi L200, Toyota Highlaner and the Renault Duster 4WD version with an automatic transmission. Anyone with a driver's license can test Renault, Hyundai and Toyota crossovers on a special artificial track in front of the pavilion. AiF / Irina Zverkova
The legendary BV-206, nicknamed "Moose", primarily because of its abilities. The Swedish tracked vehicle was originally developed for the army, and for more than 20 years it has been used wherever it is necessary to overcome off-road conditions and does not harm the surface due to the pressure on the soil, which is half as much as the pressure produced by a person’s foot. AiF / Irina Zverkova
Another former “military” is a representative of the Swiss army, an all-terrain vehicle. Its design was created by the Austrian company Steyr-Daimler-Puch and has not undergone major changes since 1971. Only the engines of the car were updated, which had to comply with modern environmental standards. The Austrian company abandoned car production in 1990, and production resumed in England in 2009. AiF / Irina Zverkova
One of the most interesting exhibits located in the adjacent hall of the “Hunting and Fishing” exhibition was the Gibbs Quads amphibious quad bike. It can reach the same speed on land and water, 80 km/h. To move on a hard surface, an ATV uses wheels, which, after entering the water, are removed and the vehicle becomes a full-fledged jet ski. AiF / Irina Zverkova
Expeditionary lifted “Loaf” with an automatic transmission and wheels with centralized pumping. AiF / Irina Zverkova
In the foreground is an amphibious hovercraft. The vehicle can completely replace a jet ski, reaching a speed of 100 km/h on the water. Engine - Rotax 503 aircraft with a power of 52 hp. AiF / Irina Zverkova
But the most attention is attracted to SUVs, the cross-country ability of which has been improved using various engineering solutions. AiF / Irina Zverkova
For those who want to create a car “for themselves,” several companies offered various equipment from differentials and transfer cases to winches and cables. AiF / Irina Zverkova
Some SUVs are improved not only technically, but also visually. These Toyota Tundras have become real AiF show cars / Irina Zverkova
Tipping angle
This is the maximum angle of inclination of the car around the longitudinal axis at which it will not fall to one side. In real life, this parameter depends on the combination of the vehicle's width and height, its track width, and the center of gravity.
The wider the vehicle's track, the lower the height and the lower the center of gravity (the parameters are not identical, but mutually influencing), the higher the rollover angle. That is, the more difficult it is to put the car on its side when driving along a longitudinally inclined surface.
In reality, understanding the rollover angle of a car (approximate, of course) can help off-road, in places with large slopes. Fortunately, there are no such slopes even on abandoned primers. Just somewhere in the forest.
Railway gauge in Russia
Initially, the railway gauge in Russia (later in the USSR), as well as in Finland and Mongolia, was 1524 mm or 5 English feet. In the second half of the last century, from approximately 1970 to 1990, the gauge changed slightly and amounted to 1520 mm . Such a seemingly insignificant change was needed in order to make the movement of heavy freight trains more stable. This was especially true against the backdrop of increasing rolling stock speeds.
All countries that were part of the USSR still use the gauge standard adopted at that time, and in other countries, for example, in Finland, the gauge is still the same as 1524 mm. Even subway cars have the same track. Some roads in Russia and other former USSR countries also still have a gauge of 1524 mm. This is mainly found on some slop tracks or spurs built to businesses. It makes no sense to change them , and trains almost never run on them.
Rails for metro trains in all countries of the former USSR also have a gauge of 1520 mm. The same applies to trams, but there are exceptions here, and in some cities you can find narrow-gauge trams. For example, in Kaliningrad, Pyatigorsk, Zhitomir, Vinnitsa, Evpatoria and some other cities, trams run on rails whose gauge is one meter.
All due to the fact that 4 mm is not such a difference that requires re-equipment of the carriage bogies. True, at the initial stage, new sections led to accelerated wear of the flange and rolling surface of car wheel pairs. Later, when the standard was introduced everywhere, the problem gradually went away. Although many experts, technicians, track workers and repairmen argued that the connection between changing the gauge and increased wear is far-fetched.
When a road wears out, it needs to be repaired, but this is not due to a change in track.
The gauge of 1524 meters was first used during the construction of the Nikolaev railway. The railway workers, to whom I was once included, even have a story that Nicholas I was offered to make a road with a gauge of one and a half meters (for good measure), to which he replied something along the lines of “well... with him.” As a result, another 24 mm was added. Of course, these are all jokes, because 1524 mm is exactly five English feet, that is, a beautiful round number. But the Nikolaevskaya road became the first double-track road in Russia, connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Steam locomotive cemetery and how old trains are disposed of
Now it is called the October Railway , and by the strong-willed decision of its creators it was she who set the standard for centuries to come. Before this, the very first railway in Russia, called Tsarskoye Selo, had a gauge of 1829 mm. This, by the way, is six English feet - another round number.
Fording depth
Everything is clear here: this is the maximum depth of a water obstacle that a car can overcome without “choking.” The parameter is adjustable and depends on the air intake outlet above the expected waterline. For this purpose, devices called snorkels are used. They allow prepared SUVs to dive into the water up to the hood and even below.
In real conditions, playing with water can still end very badly. Not only does it prevent water from getting into the intake and cylinders, it is important that water does not flood the electronics or, even worse, the car does not tip over due to the water flow.
The widest railway
If we talk about the widest railway, we can say that there is none. Of course, there is a 1676 mm gauge, which is found in India, Pakistan, Chile, Argentina, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, but there was a project for a real king of the road. But it was hatched in Nazi Germany and did not imply peaceful construction for commercial purposes.
Initially, it was planned to connect Japan and India with Europe using such a road. Naturally, through the territory of the USSR. The project, which was called “ Breitspurbahn ”, assumed a track width of exactly three meters. The road was supposed to become very fast and transport huge loads over long distances. The project was not destined to come true and no one else approached the implementation of such decisions as seriously as the leadership and engineers of the Third Reich.
The appearance of a track of 1435 mm
George Stephenson used 1435mm gauge (with an extra centimeter to reduce drag in curves) for the Liverpool and Manchester railways, which were authorized in 1826 and opened on 30 September 1830. The success of this project led to George and his son Robert being hired to design several more major railroad projects. However, the Chester and Birkenhead Railway, approved on July 12, 1837, had a gauge of 1493 mm, the Eastern Counties Railway, approved on July 4, 1836, had a gauge of 1,524 mm, and the London and Blackwall Railway, approved on July 28, 1836, had a gauge of 1,524 mm. London-Brighton road approved 15 July 1837 - 1493 mm, Manchester-Birmingham road approved 30 June 1837 was 1493 mm, Manchester-Leeds road approved 4 July 1836 - 1493 mm, Northern and Eastern road approved 4 July 1836, had a gauge of 1524 mm. Roads with a width of 1493 mm were supposed to accommodate vehicles for a gauge of 1435 mm and were an acceptable deviation.
Stephenson began to receive many orders for his locomotives, and Stephenson and his son Robert were hired to design several other major railroad projects. Thus the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) gauge became widespread and dominant in Britain. Therefore, this gauge has become widespread in Europe and America. It is sometimes called "Stephenson" or "normal railway gauge".
George Stephenson's son, Robert Stephenson, insisted on a larger gauge (5 ft - 1524 mm or 5 ft 3 in - 1600 mm). He proceeded from a more convenient placement of parts of the steam locomotives being designed.
At that time, few people thought that the gauge should be chosen based on the creation of a unified railway network in one country, or even more so on entire continents. It seemed that this was a matter of the distant future. In Great Britain, different gauges were adopted from the very beginning of construction. In 1833, the engineer Brinell proposed building the Great Western Road in Great Britain with a gauge of 7 feet (2135 mm). He believed that this would create more favorable conditions for increasing the speed of movement. And such a railway was built. In addition to it, three more large railways had a gauge different from Stephenson's, namely 1676 and 1600 mm. Thus, only in the birthplace of railways were four different gauges adopted at the beginning of construction! Somewhat later, other gauge widths were adopted. At first, while all the railways being built by different companies and joint-stock companies were separated from each other, this did not cause any special concerns. However, approximately 20 years after the start of railway construction - in the mid-40s of the 19th century - the issue of gauge became one of the most pressing in the public life of the country. Where roads with different gauges connected, passengers had to transfer from one carriage to another to continue their journey, and cargo had to be reloaded. This caused great inconvenience. Finally, the issue was raised in the British Parliament.
Changing the layout
Self-locking differential on Niva, pumping up cross-country ability.
At each retail outlet, there are places with more concentrated traffic. They can also be calculated and then the most profitable product can be placed there. For example, our client, the Azbuka Vkusa chain, has areas in its stores where the traffic is 70% men and 30% women. The retailer sells this information to brewing companies, and pallets of new beer are laid out there. And it really gives good results. Such places tend to “migrate” in the store depending on the season, so you need to measure traffic in the store once every 3-4 months.
Now I want to say a few words about how not to use places with the highest traffic. Most stores, in order to offer the buyer a high-margin product, proceed as follows:
- place it in the path of customers so that they need to go around it;
- they make a rearrangement - for example, instead of the popular 3.2% fat kefir they put in milk bars or other goods of impulse demand.
But such forced merchandising is an old technique, and, in fact, has outlived its usefulness. I'll explain why.
When a person enters an unfamiliar store, he usually goes straight or left. That is why most often the entrance to the store is on the right side, and then the space is organized in such a way that the buyer walks around all groups of goods. But when a person has studied the algorithm for moving around the store, he builds his own optimal route, independent of what marketers have built there.
As a result, 3–4 months after opening, “ant paths” appear in the store: customers no longer move along the main trajectory, but go directly to the goods they need. Then retailers resort to rearrangement so that in the usual place a person finds not the product he is looking for, but something else that is more profitable for the store. Such rearrangements should not be abused - it irritates customers and can lead to their churn.
People come to the store with a specific purpose - Ruzsky kefir, Borodinsky bread and table eggs. Somewhere at the subconscious level they are ready to experiment, but the product needs to be offered more gently. If you always “hide his slippers from a person,” he may get tired of it.
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Origins
Popular legend traces the 1435mm gauge back to the coalfields of northern England, pointing to chariot-rutted roads dating back to Roman times. This legend has been debunked. The historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn carts at approximately 1524 mm wide probably stems from the width required to accommodate the draft horse between the shafts. Additionally, while road vehicles were typically measured from the outer edge of the wheel rim (there is evidence that early railroads were measured the same way), it became apparent that for rail vehicles it was better to have the wheel flanges inside the rails, thus The distance between the inner edges of the wheels (and, as a consequence, between the inner rail heads) became very important.
There was no normal gauge for horse-drawn railways, but there was a rough classification:
- in the north of England it is no longer 1219 mm.
- The Wylam gauge system, built before 1763, was 1524mm wide, as was John Blenkinsop's railways when the old 1219mm wide tracks were rebuilt to accommodate Blenkinsop's steam locomotives.
- At Beamish the width was 1341 mm or 1447 mm (Bigges Main Kenton Coxlodge).
British inventor George Stephenson worked for several years as an engineer in the coal mines in County Durham. He liked the 1435mm gauge at Northumberland and Durham and used them on his Killingworth line. Trolley rails at Hetton and Springwell also used this gauge.
The Stephenson Stockton-Darlington Railway is the world's first public railway using locomotive (steam) traction. Opened on September 27, 1825. It was built primarily to transport coal from several mines near Shildon to the port of Stockton-on-Tees. The main gauge of 1422mm was installed to accommodate the existing track for the hundreds of coal cars already in use at the mines. It was built and used for 15 years before being changed to 1435mm wide.
Royal commission
A special parliamentary commission was created, which on August 12, 1846, based on the opinions of 46 experts, adopted a bill on the issue of gauge. The commission found that construction costs are higher for wider gauges, but was unable to show how this is compensated for during the operation of the lines. By the time the Bill was passed, Britain had gauge railways. 4'8 1/2″ (1435 mm) - 3228 km; 5'3″2 (1600 mm) - 55 km; 5'6″ (1676 mm) - 55 km; 6'2″ (1880 mm) —43 km; 7′ (2135 mm) - 469 mm. Still, most of the roads had a Stephenson gauge. And changing a wide gauge to a narrow one is cheaper than converting a narrow one to a wide one. This was also an important argument in favor of adopting a narrower gauge. At the same time, serious arguments were made in favor of 6'3", 5'6" and 6'2" gauges . Only the 7′ gauge was not supported by any of the experts.
The Royal Commission was in favor of normal gauge. In Great Britain, the Stevenson gauge was chosen as the standard gauge because the overall length of railways of this gauge was greater than that of its competitor, the 2140 mm gauge adopted mainly by the Great Western.
A law passed by the British Parliament obligated all railway owners to change the gauge to a width of 4'8 1/2″ (1435 mm). All future roads also had to be built with this gauge. In case of violation of the gauge law, the “offending road” had to pay a fine of 10 pounds. Art. from every 10 miles for every day of existence. An exception was made for Ireland, where the 5'3" (1600 mm) gauge was retained.
This has allowed a large number of UK companies to continue to repair their tracks and expand their networks within the limits of deviations and exceptions written into the law. At the end of the transition period (the tracks were laid with three running rails) in 1892, the Great Western Railway finally rebuilt its tracks in accordance with the normal gauge.
In Ireland, the issue of gauge was not easily resolved. In the 1840s, Ireland had six gauge standards, ranging from 6'2″ (1880 mm) and below. To resolve the issue fairly, the gauge was calculated as the average of all gauges, and all railways were obliged to change their gauge to a new one. Today in Ireland the gauge is 1600 mm.
In the world
On the European continent, there was also a real leapfrog with gauge at the beginning. Basically, the Stephenson gauge was adopted - 4'8 1/2″. But in Germany, the Baden Railways introduced a 6′ wide gauge, in Spain, and then in Portugal - a 5'6″ gauge, the Amsterdam-Aarheim line was also widened. Some Swiss railways also had a wider gauge. However, this situation could not be tolerated for a long time - passenger transfers and cargo transshipment caused too large and unjustified losses of time and money. Agreements were concluded between the then existing states on the introduction of a single track. Such agreements were concluded, for example, between the city of Frankfurt and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, the Netherlands and Prussia. The Union of German Railways finally decided in favor of the Stephenson gauge of 4'8 1/2″. It ultimately became the main one for most European countries.
In North America, the 4'8 1/2″ gauge was preferred, but some railroads were built with a different gauge. For example, the 579 km New Orleans-Nashville road was built with a 6′ gauge. The United States was then on the eve of the Civil War, and the use of different gauges was part of the hostile policy of the Southern States towards the Northern States. Until 1860, railways were built with gauges (except Stephenson): 6′ (1829 mm), 5'6″ (1676 mm), 5′ (1524 mm), 4'10" (1473 mm), 4'9 ″ (1448 mm). In February 1886, after long negotiations, the “Convention for the Introduction of a Uniform Gauge of US Railways” was concluded. It is interesting that the change of track to the Stephenson track over a length of approximately 21,000 km was completed in two days - May 31 and June 1, 1886. The track was narrowed in the states: Georgia (3882 km); Tennessee (3034 km), Alabama (2901 km), South Carolina (2124 km), Florida (2011 km), Kentucky (1799 km), Virginia (1578 km), North Carolina (1545 km), Mississippi (1249 km), Louisiana (504 km). Preparatory work took 79 days, and after re-stitching, finishing work continued for another 50 days. Approximately 21,000 km of railway track had to be rebuilt in 2 days.
Canadian railways have a similar gauge.
How to measure the traffic of a retail outlet using technical means
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If it’s winter or bad weather, it’s more convenient and efficient to use special technical means for measuring traffic.
Video recording. Opposite the store (if we are talking about a street, not a shopping center), the driver leaves the car with the DVR turned on. The recording goes on all day. At the end of the working day, the driver picks up the car. The video is then watched and thus the number of visitors is counted.
Data analysis takes four times less time than the video recording lasts, since it is viewed in quadruple rewind mode. That is, a video recording lasting 14 hours will be processed in 3.5 hours. If it’s faster, it’s already difficult to capture people, but looking slower is ineffective.
To decipher personal data from our employee (time counter) you will need even less - the questionnaires are available for automatic scanning and recognition, the information will be in the database within two minutes. As for the price, measurement using a DVR costs 1,200 rubles per hour for one point, and measurement using human resources costs 800 rubles per hour.
Laser transmitting device. This device can count store visitors around the clock. But, unfortunately, it is deprived of the ability to determine a person’s gender, age and income level.
It is installed on both sides of the entrance - on one side the laser is emitted (harmless to humans), and on the other the device receives it. As a result, when the laser is interrupted, a unit is counted in the information system. The measurement is taken at the level of the legs, not at the level of the body. I’ll explain why this is so: if people come in hugging, for example, if they are a couple, the technology does not identify them as two people. Therefore, you need to count the number of legs and then divide the result by two. The number of sellers who left and came in is being clarified further. Store employees simply record each of their entrances and exits, and their movements are then subtracted from the total traffic.
It is problematic to rent such equipment; more often it is purchased. In order to collect statistics on visits to a grocery store, it is much more profitable to use the services of a specialized agency.
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